The Shunga dynasty rose on the ruins of the Mauryan
rule.
. The railings of the Sanchi stupa were built in the period
of the Shungas.
. Gathasaptasati is a work attributed to the Satavahana
ruler, Hala.
. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue
coins that can definitely be attributed to kings.
. Milinda-Panho records a discussion between Menander
and Nagasena in the language of P~li.
. The Greeks introduced in India the practice of using
curtains at theatrical performances.
. The Vikram Samvat is in commemoration of a victory
over the Shakas.
. The Junagarh Rock inscription in Sanskrit is attributed
to Rudradaman I.
. The Shunga dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra
Shunga after killing the last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha
in about 185 Be.
. Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Shunga, re
pulsed a major Greek attack by Demetrius.
. Pushyamitra is said to have performed two Ashvamedha
yagnas.
. Vasudeva Kanva murdered his master Devabhuti-the
last ruler of the Shunga dynasty-and founded the
Kanva dynasty.
. Kharavela, the Cheti ruler in Orissa, constructed caves
in the Udaigiri for Jain monks.
. The Satavahana dynasty in the Deccan was founded by
Simuka.
. Gautamiputra Satakarni, the famous Satavahana ruler, defeated the Shaka king, Nahapana, in AD 124-125. . The Satavahana issued coins of lead, potin, copper and
bronze.
. The Satavahana society was divided into four classes: (i) mahabhojas, maharathis and mahasenapatis; (ii) officials like amatyas, mahamatras, bhandagarikas; (ill) vaidya, lakhaka, suvamakara, etc.; and (iv) malakara, vardhaki, dasaka, etc.
. Under the Satavahanas, gaulmikas were the heads of
administration in rural areas.
. The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit in
Brahmi script.
. Most of the coins issued by the Indo-Greek rulers in India bear legends in Greek on one side and in Prakrit on the other. These rulers were the first to issue gold coins in India.
. Heliodorus, who erected the Besnagar column in honour of the Vaishnavite deity Vasudeva, was the ambassador of Greek ruler Antialkidas at the court of a Shunga leader.
. Manu describes the Yavanas or Greeks as degenerate
Friday, November 27, 2009
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The period 200 Be-AD 300 witnessed a qualitative development in Indian art and architecture. Temples We have insufficient data on temple structures in this period. However, important temples of this period include the temple at Jhandial, Taxila; the Sankarshana temple at Nagari, Rajasthan; the temple at Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh; and an apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh.
Stupas Excavations at Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Maharashtra), and Taxila have exposed a number of stupas of this period. The Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) stupa has some important scenes which include (i) gods praying to Boddhisattva to take birth on the earth; (ii) Buddha's entry into the womb in the form of a white elephant; and (ill) birth of the Buddha under a flowering teak tree.
Rock-cut Architecture Chaityas (a shrine cell with a votive stupa placed in the centre) and viharas (cut out of
. rocks for the residence of monks) were built by both the Buddhists and the Jains. Most of the major chaityas and viharas of this period were built in western and eastern regions in India. In the western region, they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Ajanta, etc., while Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa are important locations of chaityas and viharas in eastern India.
Schools of Art Various schools of art, especially sculptural, developed in this period.
(a) Gandhara Art Gandhara art, mainly Buddhist, was greatly influenced by Hellenistic (Greek) art. However, the chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Shakas and Kushans. Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram and Taxila are the main centres where pieces of Gandhara art have been found. In the early Gandhara sculpture, blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. The Gandhara school gives a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body.
(b) Mathura Art The origin of Mathura art is traced to the second century Be. This school of art produced a variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina sects. A significant aspect of Mathura art is that it also produced images of kings and other notables. The Mathura sculptures were carved out of locally available red sandstone.
The Mathura school is credited with making the earliest images of Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. The Mathura images of the Buddha are mainly in two postures: standing and sitting. The right hand is shown raised in abhaya posture. The dress is always tight on the body and the left hand holds the frill.
In due course, the Mathura school contributed considerably in the development of the Gupta art.
(c) Amaravati Art During this period, the Amaravati school of art also developed in the lower valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari. Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Ghantasala, etc., were the main centres of this art. A group of women enjoying their bath, depiction of the story of King Udayana and his queens, and the taming of an elephant by the Buddha are some of the memorable works of this school.
The general features of Amaravati art include (i) use of white marble, (ii) long legs and slender frames, (ill) human beings as central characters, and (iv) prominence of kings, princes and palaces.
The Amaravati school, patronised by Satavahana rulers and later by Ikshvaku rulers, produced some of the finest art pieces in ancient India.
The period 200 Be-AD 300 witnessed a qualitative development in Indian art and architecture. Temples We have insufficient data on temple structures in this period. However, important temples of this period include the temple at Jhandial, Taxila; the Sankarshana temple at Nagari, Rajasthan; the temple at Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh; and an apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh.
Stupas Excavations at Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Maharashtra), and Taxila have exposed a number of stupas of this period. The Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) stupa has some important scenes which include (i) gods praying to Boddhisattva to take birth on the earth; (ii) Buddha's entry into the womb in the form of a white elephant; and (ill) birth of the Buddha under a flowering teak tree.
Rock-cut Architecture Chaityas (a shrine cell with a votive stupa placed in the centre) and viharas (cut out of
. rocks for the residence of monks) were built by both the Buddhists and the Jains. Most of the major chaityas and viharas of this period were built in western and eastern regions in India. In the western region, they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Ajanta, etc., while Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa are important locations of chaityas and viharas in eastern India.
Schools of Art Various schools of art, especially sculptural, developed in this period.
(a) Gandhara Art Gandhara art, mainly Buddhist, was greatly influenced by Hellenistic (Greek) art. However, the chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Shakas and Kushans. Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram and Taxila are the main centres where pieces of Gandhara art have been found. In the early Gandhara sculpture, blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. The Gandhara school gives a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body.
(b) Mathura Art The origin of Mathura art is traced to the second century Be. This school of art produced a variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina sects. A significant aspect of Mathura art is that it also produced images of kings and other notables. The Mathura sculptures were carved out of locally available red sandstone.
The Mathura school is credited with making the earliest images of Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. The Mathura images of the Buddha are mainly in two postures: standing and sitting. The right hand is shown raised in abhaya posture. The dress is always tight on the body and the left hand holds the frill.
In due course, the Mathura school contributed considerably in the development of the Gupta art.
(c) Amaravati Art During this period, the Amaravati school of art also developed in the lower valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari. Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Ghantasala, etc., were the main centres of this art. A group of women enjoying their bath, depiction of the story of King Udayana and his queens, and the taming of an elephant by the Buddha are some of the memorable works of this school.
The general features of Amaravati art include (i) use of white marble, (ii) long legs and slender frames, (ill) human beings as central characters, and (iv) prominence of kings, princes and palaces.
The Amaravati school, patronised by Satavahana rulers and later by Ikshvaku rulers, produced some of the finest art pieces in ancient India.
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS
The period 200 Be-AD 300 was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. The Mahavastu catalogues 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir. The Milinda-Panho enumerates 75 occupations, 60 of which are connected with various kinds of crafts. The Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh was the richest in iron artefacts. Indian iron and steel including cutlery were exported to the Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige in western Asia. Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a special type of cloth, shataka. About the beginning of the Christian era the knowledge of glassblowing reached India and attained its peak. Artisans of this period were organised into at least 24 guilds. The leading guilds were those of the potters, metal-workers and carpenters. These guilds acted as bankers, financiers and trustees. They helped in making banking a widespread profession. Perhaps in no other period had money economy penetrated so deeply into the life of the common people as during this period. The material remains ascribable to the Kushan phase display urbanisation at its peak.
The foreign trade was facilitated by the infiltration of the Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans in India. Besides, while the trade of the north by sea-route was limited to the western world and China, the south carried on favourable trade by sea-route not only with China and countries of the west but also with the countries of SouthEast Asia. It resulted in the growth of industries and handicrafts and increased prosperity and also in the rise of an organised and powerful mercantile community. This change in economy affected the social, artistic and religious attitudes of the society which ultimately reflected in their literature, fine arts and changes in religion.
The entire Indian subcontinent was covered by different and well-connected trade routes. Pataliputra was connected by road with Tamluk, the chief port for trade with Burma, the east coast of India and Ceylon. Broach was still the main port for the western sea coast. Kaverippattinam in the south served the purpose of trade with the western world and the countries of South-East Asia. The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, pearls, copper, sandalwood. The principal imports were cloth, glass, silver, gold. India's most lucrative foreign trade was with the Roman Empire. Central Asia was opened to trade, one trade route becoming famous later as the old Silk Route. Communication and trade with China improved.
The period 200 Be-AD 300 was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. The Mahavastu catalogues 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir. The Milinda-Panho enumerates 75 occupations, 60 of which are connected with various kinds of crafts. The Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh was the richest in iron artefacts. Indian iron and steel including cutlery were exported to the Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige in western Asia. Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a special type of cloth, shataka. About the beginning of the Christian era the knowledge of glassblowing reached India and attained its peak. Artisans of this period were organised into at least 24 guilds. The leading guilds were those of the potters, metal-workers and carpenters. These guilds acted as bankers, financiers and trustees. They helped in making banking a widespread profession. Perhaps in no other period had money economy penetrated so deeply into the life of the common people as during this period. The material remains ascribable to the Kushan phase display urbanisation at its peak.
The foreign trade was facilitated by the infiltration of the Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans in India. Besides, while the trade of the north by sea-route was limited to the western world and China, the south carried on favourable trade by sea-route not only with China and countries of the west but also with the countries of SouthEast Asia. It resulted in the growth of industries and handicrafts and increased prosperity and also in the rise of an organised and powerful mercantile community. This change in economy affected the social, artistic and religious attitudes of the society which ultimately reflected in their literature, fine arts and changes in religion.
The entire Indian subcontinent was covered by different and well-connected trade routes. Pataliputra was connected by road with Tamluk, the chief port for trade with Burma, the east coast of India and Ceylon. Broach was still the main port for the western sea coast. Kaverippattinam in the south served the purpose of trade with the western world and the countries of South-East Asia. The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, pearls, copper, sandalwood. The principal imports were cloth, glass, silver, gold. India's most lucrative foreign trade was with the Roman Empire. Central Asia was opened to trade, one trade route becoming famous later as the old Silk Route. Communication and trade with China improved.
IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT
IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT
The foreign invaders introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing. Their pottery was red ware. The invaders in course of time became an integral part of Indian society. They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles while riding horses, and used some kind of a toe stirrup made of rope which facilitated their movements. The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
With the entry of the foreigners intimate contacts were established between Central Asia and India. As a result India received a good deal of gold hom the Altai mountains in Central Asia. The Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins in India on a wide scale.
The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes; this led to the development of a feudatory organisation. The Shakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of god. Manu asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child, because he is a great god in the form of a human being. Some curious practices like hereditary dual rule were introduced, implying less of centralisation. The Greeks also introduced the practice of military governorship, called strategos.
In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they were in the post-Maurya times.
Now the Buddhist monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and artisans concentrated in towns. Large numbers of coins
have been found in the monastic areas of Nagarjunakonda. Monks now received gold and silver, non-vegetarian food and elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack that some even left the sangha and resumed the householder's life. By the beginning of the Christian era-, images of the Buddha began to be worshipped. This inspired even the brahmanical religion to adopt image-worship.
The foreign invaders introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing. Their pottery was red ware. The invaders in course of time became an integral part of Indian society. They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles while riding horses, and used some kind of a toe stirrup made of rope which facilitated their movements. The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
With the entry of the foreigners intimate contacts were established between Central Asia and India. As a result India received a good deal of gold hom the Altai mountains in Central Asia. The Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins in India on a wide scale.
The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes; this led to the development of a feudatory organisation. The Shakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of god. Manu asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child, because he is a great god in the form of a human being. Some curious practices like hereditary dual rule were introduced, implying less of centralisation. The Greeks also introduced the practice of military governorship, called strategos.
In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they were in the post-Maurya times.
Now the Buddhist monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and artisans concentrated in towns. Large numbers of coins
have been found in the monastic areas of Nagarjunakonda. Monks now received gold and silver, non-vegetarian food and elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack that some even left the sangha and resumed the householder's life. By the beginning of the Christian era-, images of the Buddha began to be worshipped. This inspired even the brahmanical religion to adopt image-worship.
Kanishka
Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler, who ruled over the western half of northern India at least as far as Varanasi, and whose dominions in Central Asia were very extensive. The date of Kanishka, like the chronology of the whole Shaka-Kushan period, is very uncertain, and estimates of the year of his accession have varied from 58 Be to AD 278. At present opinions of most competent authorities favour a date between AD 78 and 144. The former date is that of the foundation of one of the most widespread of Indian systems of dating, later known as the Shaka era. Kanishka was not a Shaka, but the term was very loosely applied, and he is known to have founded an era.
Kanishka was a great conqueror. He annexed even Kashmir. He defeated the Parthian kings. His war with the Chinese resulted in the conquest of Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkhand. He was perhaps defeated by a Chinese general Pan Chao, but he avenged his defeat a little later. Punjab, Kashmir, Sind and U.P. were included in his dominions. Probably Malwa, Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Konkan came under his suzerainty. His coins have also been found in Bihar and Bengal.
Kanishka extended his full patronage to Buddhism. Some of his coins depict the figure of the Buddha. He held a Buddhist council (fourth) in Kashmir, where the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism were finalised under the guidance of Vasumitra and Asvaghosa. The successors of Kanishka continued to rule in north-western India till AD 230, and some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudeva.
The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and in the areas west of the Indus was supplanted in the mid-third century AD by the Sassanian power, which arose in Iran. But Kushan principalities continued to exist in India for about a century. The Kushan authority seems to have lingered in the Kabul Valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezma and Sogdiana in the thirdfourth centuries. Many Kushan coins, inscriptions and terracottas have been found in these areas. Especially at a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezma a huge Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has been unearthed. It housed administrative archives containing inscriptions and documents written in Aramaic script and Khorezmian language.
At its height, the Kushan empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in U.P. A good part of Central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushans.
The early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta gold coins. Although the gold coins of the Kushans are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscriptions are distributed not only in north-western India and Sind but also in Mathura, Sravasti, Kaushambi and Varanasi. Hence they had set up their authority in the greater part of the Gangetic basin. Kushan coins, inscriptions, constructions and pieces of sculpture found in Mathura show that it was their second capital, the first being Purushpura or Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge stupa, built under the supervision of a Greek architect named Agesilaos.
Kanishka's court was adorned by the celebrated Buddhist teachers Parsva and Vasumitra, the great Buddhist poet and philosopher Asvaghosha, the well-known philosopher Nagarjuna, and the physician Charaka.
Kanishka was a great conqueror. He annexed even Kashmir. He defeated the Parthian kings. His war with the Chinese resulted in the conquest of Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkhand. He was perhaps defeated by a Chinese general Pan Chao, but he avenged his defeat a little later. Punjab, Kashmir, Sind and U.P. were included in his dominions. Probably Malwa, Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Konkan came under his suzerainty. His coins have also been found in Bihar and Bengal.
Kanishka extended his full patronage to Buddhism. Some of his coins depict the figure of the Buddha. He held a Buddhist council (fourth) in Kashmir, where the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism were finalised under the guidance of Vasumitra and Asvaghosa. The successors of Kanishka continued to rule in north-western India till AD 230, and some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudeva.
The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and in the areas west of the Indus was supplanted in the mid-third century AD by the Sassanian power, which arose in Iran. But Kushan principalities continued to exist in India for about a century. The Kushan authority seems to have lingered in the Kabul Valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezma and Sogdiana in the thirdfourth centuries. Many Kushan coins, inscriptions and terracottas have been found in these areas. Especially at a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezma a huge Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has been unearthed. It housed administrative archives containing inscriptions and documents written in Aramaic script and Khorezmian language.
At its height, the Kushan empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in U.P. A good part of Central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushans.
The early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta gold coins. Although the gold coins of the Kushans are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscriptions are distributed not only in north-western India and Sind but also in Mathura, Sravasti, Kaushambi and Varanasi. Hence they had set up their authority in the greater part of the Gangetic basin. Kushan coins, inscriptions, constructions and pieces of sculpture found in Mathura show that it was their second capital, the first being Purushpura or Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge stupa, built under the supervision of a Greek architect named Agesilaos.
Kanishka's court was adorned by the celebrated Buddhist teachers Parsva and Vasumitra, the great Buddhist poet and philosopher Asvaghosha, the well-known philosopher Nagarjuna, and the physician Charaka.
THE KUSHANS
THE KUSHANS
The Pahlavas were in turn replaced by the Yueh-Chih tribe in the north-west. The racial affinities of these people are uncertain; physically they appear Turkish-type but like the Shakas they appear to have spoken an Iranian language. For a century or more they dwelt in Bactria and the neighbouring regions of Central Asia, divided into five autonomous tribes, until control was consolidated in the hands of Kujula Kadphises of the tribe of the Kushans. Kujula issued coins south of the Hindukush. He minted copper in imitation of Roman coins. His son and successor Vima Kadphises issued a large number of gold coins in which he seems to be a worshipper of Shiva and
spread his kingdom east of the Indus. The house of Kadphises (AD 50-78) was succeeded, probably after a short interregnum, by that of Kanishka. Its kings extended the
Kushan power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
The Pahlavas were in turn replaced by the Yueh-Chih tribe in the north-west. The racial affinities of these people are uncertain; physically they appear Turkish-type but like the Shakas they appear to have spoken an Iranian language. For a century or more they dwelt in Bactria and the neighbouring regions of Central Asia, divided into five autonomous tribes, until control was consolidated in the hands of Kujula Kadphises of the tribe of the Kushans. Kujula issued coins south of the Hindukush. He minted copper in imitation of Roman coins. His son and successor Vima Kadphises issued a large number of gold coins in which he seems to be a worshipper of Shiva and
spread his kingdom east of the Indus. The house of Kadphises (AD 50-78) was succeeded, probably after a short interregnum, by that of Kanishka. Its kings extended the
Kushan power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
THE PARTHIANS
THE PARTHIANS
Towards the end of the first century Be a line of kings with Iranian names usually known as the Parthians or the Pahlavas, gained the suzerainty of north-western India by conquering many parts from the Indo-Greek kings. The first Pahlava ruler was Mithridates who was a contemporary of Eukratides. He is said to have conquered the territory between the Indus and the Jhelum from Demetrius. The most important king of the dynasty was Gondophernes (20 Be-AD 45). During his rule St. Thomas is said to have come to India. Gondophernes was perhaps responsible for the extinction of the Greek line whose last king, Hermaeus had held out in Kabul against the Shakas.
Towards the end of the first century Be a line of kings with Iranian names usually known as the Parthians or the Pahlavas, gained the suzerainty of north-western India by conquering many parts from the Indo-Greek kings. The first Pahlava ruler was Mithridates who was a contemporary of Eukratides. He is said to have conquered the territory between the Indus and the Jhelum from Demetrius. The most important king of the dynasty was Gondophernes (20 Be-AD 45). During his rule St. Thomas is said to have come to India. Gondophernes was perhaps responsible for the extinction of the Greek line whose last king, Hermaeus had held out in Kabul against the Shakas.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
