The Shunga dynasty rose on the ruins of the Mauryan
rule.
. The railings of the Sanchi stupa were built in the period
of the Shungas.
. Gathasaptasati is a work attributed to the Satavahana
ruler, Hala.
. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue
coins that can definitely be attributed to kings.
. Milinda-Panho records a discussion between Menander
and Nagasena in the language of P~li.
. The Greeks introduced in India the practice of using
curtains at theatrical performances.
. The Vikram Samvat is in commemoration of a victory
over the Shakas.
. The Junagarh Rock inscription in Sanskrit is attributed
to Rudradaman I.
. The Shunga dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra
Shunga after killing the last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha
in about 185 Be.
. Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Shunga, re
pulsed a major Greek attack by Demetrius.
. Pushyamitra is said to have performed two Ashvamedha
yagnas.
. Vasudeva Kanva murdered his master Devabhuti-the
last ruler of the Shunga dynasty-and founded the
Kanva dynasty.
. Kharavela, the Cheti ruler in Orissa, constructed caves
in the Udaigiri for Jain monks.
. The Satavahana dynasty in the Deccan was founded by
Simuka.
. Gautamiputra Satakarni, the famous Satavahana ruler, defeated the Shaka king, Nahapana, in AD 124-125. . The Satavahana issued coins of lead, potin, copper and
bronze.
. The Satavahana society was divided into four classes: (i) mahabhojas, maharathis and mahasenapatis; (ii) officials like amatyas, mahamatras, bhandagarikas; (ill) vaidya, lakhaka, suvamakara, etc.; and (iv) malakara, vardhaki, dasaka, etc.
. Under the Satavahanas, gaulmikas were the heads of
administration in rural areas.
. The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit in
Brahmi script.
. Most of the coins issued by the Indo-Greek rulers in India bear legends in Greek on one side and in Prakrit on the other. These rulers were the first to issue gold coins in India.
. Heliodorus, who erected the Besnagar column in honour of the Vaishnavite deity Vasudeva, was the ambassador of Greek ruler Antialkidas at the court of a Shunga leader.
. Manu describes the Yavanas or Greeks as degenerate
Friday, November 27, 2009
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The period 200 Be-AD 300 witnessed a qualitative development in Indian art and architecture. Temples We have insufficient data on temple structures in this period. However, important temples of this period include the temple at Jhandial, Taxila; the Sankarshana temple at Nagari, Rajasthan; the temple at Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh; and an apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh.
Stupas Excavations at Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Maharashtra), and Taxila have exposed a number of stupas of this period. The Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) stupa has some important scenes which include (i) gods praying to Boddhisattva to take birth on the earth; (ii) Buddha's entry into the womb in the form of a white elephant; and (ill) birth of the Buddha under a flowering teak tree.
Rock-cut Architecture Chaityas (a shrine cell with a votive stupa placed in the centre) and viharas (cut out of
. rocks for the residence of monks) were built by both the Buddhists and the Jains. Most of the major chaityas and viharas of this period were built in western and eastern regions in India. In the western region, they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Ajanta, etc., while Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa are important locations of chaityas and viharas in eastern India.
Schools of Art Various schools of art, especially sculptural, developed in this period.
(a) Gandhara Art Gandhara art, mainly Buddhist, was greatly influenced by Hellenistic (Greek) art. However, the chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Shakas and Kushans. Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram and Taxila are the main centres where pieces of Gandhara art have been found. In the early Gandhara sculpture, blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. The Gandhara school gives a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body.
(b) Mathura Art The origin of Mathura art is traced to the second century Be. This school of art produced a variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina sects. A significant aspect of Mathura art is that it also produced images of kings and other notables. The Mathura sculptures were carved out of locally available red sandstone.
The Mathura school is credited with making the earliest images of Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. The Mathura images of the Buddha are mainly in two postures: standing and sitting. The right hand is shown raised in abhaya posture. The dress is always tight on the body and the left hand holds the frill.
In due course, the Mathura school contributed considerably in the development of the Gupta art.
(c) Amaravati Art During this period, the Amaravati school of art also developed in the lower valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari. Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Ghantasala, etc., were the main centres of this art. A group of women enjoying their bath, depiction of the story of King Udayana and his queens, and the taming of an elephant by the Buddha are some of the memorable works of this school.
The general features of Amaravati art include (i) use of white marble, (ii) long legs and slender frames, (ill) human beings as central characters, and (iv) prominence of kings, princes and palaces.
The Amaravati school, patronised by Satavahana rulers and later by Ikshvaku rulers, produced some of the finest art pieces in ancient India.
The period 200 Be-AD 300 witnessed a qualitative development in Indian art and architecture. Temples We have insufficient data on temple structures in this period. However, important temples of this period include the temple at Jhandial, Taxila; the Sankarshana temple at Nagari, Rajasthan; the temple at Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh; and an apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh.
Stupas Excavations at Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Maharashtra), and Taxila have exposed a number of stupas of this period. The Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) stupa has some important scenes which include (i) gods praying to Boddhisattva to take birth on the earth; (ii) Buddha's entry into the womb in the form of a white elephant; and (ill) birth of the Buddha under a flowering teak tree.
Rock-cut Architecture Chaityas (a shrine cell with a votive stupa placed in the centre) and viharas (cut out of
. rocks for the residence of monks) were built by both the Buddhists and the Jains. Most of the major chaityas and viharas of this period were built in western and eastern regions in India. In the western region, they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Ajanta, etc., while Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa are important locations of chaityas and viharas in eastern India.
Schools of Art Various schools of art, especially sculptural, developed in this period.
(a) Gandhara Art Gandhara art, mainly Buddhist, was greatly influenced by Hellenistic (Greek) art. However, the chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Shakas and Kushans. Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram and Taxila are the main centres where pieces of Gandhara art have been found. In the early Gandhara sculpture, blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. The Gandhara school gives a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body.
(b) Mathura Art The origin of Mathura art is traced to the second century Be. This school of art produced a variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina sects. A significant aspect of Mathura art is that it also produced images of kings and other notables. The Mathura sculptures were carved out of locally available red sandstone.
The Mathura school is credited with making the earliest images of Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. The Mathura images of the Buddha are mainly in two postures: standing and sitting. The right hand is shown raised in abhaya posture. The dress is always tight on the body and the left hand holds the frill.
In due course, the Mathura school contributed considerably in the development of the Gupta art.
(c) Amaravati Art During this period, the Amaravati school of art also developed in the lower valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari. Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Ghantasala, etc., were the main centres of this art. A group of women enjoying their bath, depiction of the story of King Udayana and his queens, and the taming of an elephant by the Buddha are some of the memorable works of this school.
The general features of Amaravati art include (i) use of white marble, (ii) long legs and slender frames, (ill) human beings as central characters, and (iv) prominence of kings, princes and palaces.
The Amaravati school, patronised by Satavahana rulers and later by Ikshvaku rulers, produced some of the finest art pieces in ancient India.
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS
The period 200 Be-AD 300 was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. The Mahavastu catalogues 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir. The Milinda-Panho enumerates 75 occupations, 60 of which are connected with various kinds of crafts. The Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh was the richest in iron artefacts. Indian iron and steel including cutlery were exported to the Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige in western Asia. Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a special type of cloth, shataka. About the beginning of the Christian era the knowledge of glassblowing reached India and attained its peak. Artisans of this period were organised into at least 24 guilds. The leading guilds were those of the potters, metal-workers and carpenters. These guilds acted as bankers, financiers and trustees. They helped in making banking a widespread profession. Perhaps in no other period had money economy penetrated so deeply into the life of the common people as during this period. The material remains ascribable to the Kushan phase display urbanisation at its peak.
The foreign trade was facilitated by the infiltration of the Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans in India. Besides, while the trade of the north by sea-route was limited to the western world and China, the south carried on favourable trade by sea-route not only with China and countries of the west but also with the countries of SouthEast Asia. It resulted in the growth of industries and handicrafts and increased prosperity and also in the rise of an organised and powerful mercantile community. This change in economy affected the social, artistic and religious attitudes of the society which ultimately reflected in their literature, fine arts and changes in religion.
The entire Indian subcontinent was covered by different and well-connected trade routes. Pataliputra was connected by road with Tamluk, the chief port for trade with Burma, the east coast of India and Ceylon. Broach was still the main port for the western sea coast. Kaverippattinam in the south served the purpose of trade with the western world and the countries of South-East Asia. The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, pearls, copper, sandalwood. The principal imports were cloth, glass, silver, gold. India's most lucrative foreign trade was with the Roman Empire. Central Asia was opened to trade, one trade route becoming famous later as the old Silk Route. Communication and trade with China improved.
The period 200 Be-AD 300 was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. The Mahavastu catalogues 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir. The Milinda-Panho enumerates 75 occupations, 60 of which are connected with various kinds of crafts. The Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh was the richest in iron artefacts. Indian iron and steel including cutlery were exported to the Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige in western Asia. Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a special type of cloth, shataka. About the beginning of the Christian era the knowledge of glassblowing reached India and attained its peak. Artisans of this period were organised into at least 24 guilds. The leading guilds were those of the potters, metal-workers and carpenters. These guilds acted as bankers, financiers and trustees. They helped in making banking a widespread profession. Perhaps in no other period had money economy penetrated so deeply into the life of the common people as during this period. The material remains ascribable to the Kushan phase display urbanisation at its peak.
The foreign trade was facilitated by the infiltration of the Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans in India. Besides, while the trade of the north by sea-route was limited to the western world and China, the south carried on favourable trade by sea-route not only with China and countries of the west but also with the countries of SouthEast Asia. It resulted in the growth of industries and handicrafts and increased prosperity and also in the rise of an organised and powerful mercantile community. This change in economy affected the social, artistic and religious attitudes of the society which ultimately reflected in their literature, fine arts and changes in religion.
The entire Indian subcontinent was covered by different and well-connected trade routes. Pataliputra was connected by road with Tamluk, the chief port for trade with Burma, the east coast of India and Ceylon. Broach was still the main port for the western sea coast. Kaverippattinam in the south served the purpose of trade with the western world and the countries of South-East Asia. The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, pearls, copper, sandalwood. The principal imports were cloth, glass, silver, gold. India's most lucrative foreign trade was with the Roman Empire. Central Asia was opened to trade, one trade route becoming famous later as the old Silk Route. Communication and trade with China improved.
IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT
IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT
The foreign invaders introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing. Their pottery was red ware. The invaders in course of time became an integral part of Indian society. They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles while riding horses, and used some kind of a toe stirrup made of rope which facilitated their movements. The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
With the entry of the foreigners intimate contacts were established between Central Asia and India. As a result India received a good deal of gold hom the Altai mountains in Central Asia. The Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins in India on a wide scale.
The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes; this led to the development of a feudatory organisation. The Shakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of god. Manu asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child, because he is a great god in the form of a human being. Some curious practices like hereditary dual rule were introduced, implying less of centralisation. The Greeks also introduced the practice of military governorship, called strategos.
In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they were in the post-Maurya times.
Now the Buddhist monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and artisans concentrated in towns. Large numbers of coins
have been found in the monastic areas of Nagarjunakonda. Monks now received gold and silver, non-vegetarian food and elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack that some even left the sangha and resumed the householder's life. By the beginning of the Christian era-, images of the Buddha began to be worshipped. This inspired even the brahmanical religion to adopt image-worship.
The foreign invaders introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing. Their pottery was red ware. The invaders in course of time became an integral part of Indian society. They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale. They made common the use of reins and saddles while riding horses, and used some kind of a toe stirrup made of rope which facilitated their movements. The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
With the entry of the foreigners intimate contacts were established between Central Asia and India. As a result India received a good deal of gold hom the Altai mountains in Central Asia. The Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins in India on a wide scale.
The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes; this led to the development of a feudatory organisation. The Shakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of god. Manu asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child, because he is a great god in the form of a human being. Some curious practices like hereditary dual rule were introduced, implying less of centralisation. The Greeks also introduced the practice of military governorship, called strategos.
In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they were in the post-Maurya times.
Now the Buddhist monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and artisans concentrated in towns. Large numbers of coins
have been found in the monastic areas of Nagarjunakonda. Monks now received gold and silver, non-vegetarian food and elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack that some even left the sangha and resumed the householder's life. By the beginning of the Christian era-, images of the Buddha began to be worshipped. This inspired even the brahmanical religion to adopt image-worship.
Kanishka
Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler, who ruled over the western half of northern India at least as far as Varanasi, and whose dominions in Central Asia were very extensive. The date of Kanishka, like the chronology of the whole Shaka-Kushan period, is very uncertain, and estimates of the year of his accession have varied from 58 Be to AD 278. At present opinions of most competent authorities favour a date between AD 78 and 144. The former date is that of the foundation of one of the most widespread of Indian systems of dating, later known as the Shaka era. Kanishka was not a Shaka, but the term was very loosely applied, and he is known to have founded an era.
Kanishka was a great conqueror. He annexed even Kashmir. He defeated the Parthian kings. His war with the Chinese resulted in the conquest of Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkhand. He was perhaps defeated by a Chinese general Pan Chao, but he avenged his defeat a little later. Punjab, Kashmir, Sind and U.P. were included in his dominions. Probably Malwa, Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Konkan came under his suzerainty. His coins have also been found in Bihar and Bengal.
Kanishka extended his full patronage to Buddhism. Some of his coins depict the figure of the Buddha. He held a Buddhist council (fourth) in Kashmir, where the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism were finalised under the guidance of Vasumitra and Asvaghosa. The successors of Kanishka continued to rule in north-western India till AD 230, and some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudeva.
The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and in the areas west of the Indus was supplanted in the mid-third century AD by the Sassanian power, which arose in Iran. But Kushan principalities continued to exist in India for about a century. The Kushan authority seems to have lingered in the Kabul Valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezma and Sogdiana in the thirdfourth centuries. Many Kushan coins, inscriptions and terracottas have been found in these areas. Especially at a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezma a huge Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has been unearthed. It housed administrative archives containing inscriptions and documents written in Aramaic script and Khorezmian language.
At its height, the Kushan empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in U.P. A good part of Central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushans.
The early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta gold coins. Although the gold coins of the Kushans are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscriptions are distributed not only in north-western India and Sind but also in Mathura, Sravasti, Kaushambi and Varanasi. Hence they had set up their authority in the greater part of the Gangetic basin. Kushan coins, inscriptions, constructions and pieces of sculpture found in Mathura show that it was their second capital, the first being Purushpura or Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge stupa, built under the supervision of a Greek architect named Agesilaos.
Kanishka's court was adorned by the celebrated Buddhist teachers Parsva and Vasumitra, the great Buddhist poet and philosopher Asvaghosha, the well-known philosopher Nagarjuna, and the physician Charaka.
Kanishka was a great conqueror. He annexed even Kashmir. He defeated the Parthian kings. His war with the Chinese resulted in the conquest of Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkhand. He was perhaps defeated by a Chinese general Pan Chao, but he avenged his defeat a little later. Punjab, Kashmir, Sind and U.P. were included in his dominions. Probably Malwa, Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Konkan came under his suzerainty. His coins have also been found in Bihar and Bengal.
Kanishka extended his full patronage to Buddhism. Some of his coins depict the figure of the Buddha. He held a Buddhist council (fourth) in Kashmir, where the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism were finalised under the guidance of Vasumitra and Asvaghosa. The successors of Kanishka continued to rule in north-western India till AD 230, and some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudeva.
The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and in the areas west of the Indus was supplanted in the mid-third century AD by the Sassanian power, which arose in Iran. But Kushan principalities continued to exist in India for about a century. The Kushan authority seems to have lingered in the Kabul Valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezma and Sogdiana in the thirdfourth centuries. Many Kushan coins, inscriptions and terracottas have been found in these areas. Especially at a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezma a huge Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has been unearthed. It housed administrative archives containing inscriptions and documents written in Aramaic script and Khorezmian language.
At its height, the Kushan empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in U.P. A good part of Central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushans.
The early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta gold coins. Although the gold coins of the Kushans are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscriptions are distributed not only in north-western India and Sind but also in Mathura, Sravasti, Kaushambi and Varanasi. Hence they had set up their authority in the greater part of the Gangetic basin. Kushan coins, inscriptions, constructions and pieces of sculpture found in Mathura show that it was their second capital, the first being Purushpura or Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge stupa, built under the supervision of a Greek architect named Agesilaos.
Kanishka's court was adorned by the celebrated Buddhist teachers Parsva and Vasumitra, the great Buddhist poet and philosopher Asvaghosha, the well-known philosopher Nagarjuna, and the physician Charaka.
THE KUSHANS
THE KUSHANS
The Pahlavas were in turn replaced by the Yueh-Chih tribe in the north-west. The racial affinities of these people are uncertain; physically they appear Turkish-type but like the Shakas they appear to have spoken an Iranian language. For a century or more they dwelt in Bactria and the neighbouring regions of Central Asia, divided into five autonomous tribes, until control was consolidated in the hands of Kujula Kadphises of the tribe of the Kushans. Kujula issued coins south of the Hindukush. He minted copper in imitation of Roman coins. His son and successor Vima Kadphises issued a large number of gold coins in which he seems to be a worshipper of Shiva and
spread his kingdom east of the Indus. The house of Kadphises (AD 50-78) was succeeded, probably after a short interregnum, by that of Kanishka. Its kings extended the
Kushan power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
The Pahlavas were in turn replaced by the Yueh-Chih tribe in the north-west. The racial affinities of these people are uncertain; physically they appear Turkish-type but like the Shakas they appear to have spoken an Iranian language. For a century or more they dwelt in Bactria and the neighbouring regions of Central Asia, divided into five autonomous tribes, until control was consolidated in the hands of Kujula Kadphises of the tribe of the Kushans. Kujula issued coins south of the Hindukush. He minted copper in imitation of Roman coins. His son and successor Vima Kadphises issued a large number of gold coins in which he seems to be a worshipper of Shiva and
spread his kingdom east of the Indus. The house of Kadphises (AD 50-78) was succeeded, probably after a short interregnum, by that of Kanishka. Its kings extended the
Kushan power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
THE PARTHIANS
THE PARTHIANS
Towards the end of the first century Be a line of kings with Iranian names usually known as the Parthians or the Pahlavas, gained the suzerainty of north-western India by conquering many parts from the Indo-Greek kings. The first Pahlava ruler was Mithridates who was a contemporary of Eukratides. He is said to have conquered the territory between the Indus and the Jhelum from Demetrius. The most important king of the dynasty was Gondophernes (20 Be-AD 45). During his rule St. Thomas is said to have come to India. Gondophernes was perhaps responsible for the extinction of the Greek line whose last king, Hermaeus had held out in Kabul against the Shakas.
Towards the end of the first century Be a line of kings with Iranian names usually known as the Parthians or the Pahlavas, gained the suzerainty of north-western India by conquering many parts from the Indo-Greek kings. The first Pahlava ruler was Mithridates who was a contemporary of Eukratides. He is said to have conquered the territory between the Indus and the Jhelum from Demetrius. The most important king of the dynasty was Gondophernes (20 Be-AD 45). During his rule St. Thomas is said to have come to India. Gondophernes was perhaps responsible for the extinction of the Greek line whose last king, Hermaeus had held out in Kabul against the Shakas.
SHAKAS main Branches
The main branches were:
The Shakas of Taxiia The Taxila branch of the Shakas
ruled in north-western provinces of India with its capital at Taxila. The earliest Shaka ruler of this branch was Manes who is identified with King Moga. This branch ruled between 20 BC and AD 44.
The Shakas of Mathura Rajwul (Rajool) was the first ruler of this branch. The title of 'Mahakshatrapa' is inscribed on the coins of the Shakas. Rajwul was succeeded by his son Shoddas. This branch of the Shakas ruled the area between eastern Punjab and Mathura.
The Shakas of Maharashtra The Kshaharata clan of the Shakas ruled the entire Maharashtra region and a portion of Saurashtra. Bhumaka was the first Kshaharata ruler. But the most important ruler of this line of the Shakas was Nahapana. He is known for his silver and copper coins and for issuing several inscriptions in both Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts.
The Shakas of Saurashtra The Kardamaka dynasty of the Shakas ruled the Saurashtra region. The Kardamaka dynasty was founded by Chashtana, who was a feudatory of the Kushans. But Chashtana's grandson, Rudradaman, was the most important king of not only the Kardamaka dynasty but also the entire Shaka tribe. Rudradaman called himself mahakshatrapa. He conquered Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat, the northern Konkan and Mahishmati.
In about 58 BC we hear of a king of Ujjain who effectively fought against the Shakas and succeeded in driving them out in his time. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era called the Vikram Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the Shakas. Henceforth, Vikramaditya became a coveted title, and consequently there are 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history.
The Shaka governors were called satraps, but the title became so popular that even when the governors became independent rulers they did not part with it. The Nasik satrapy had the great ruler Nahapana. The most important of the Shaka satrapies was the one at Ujjain founded by Chastana. About ten kings of this dynasty ruled but the most important was Rudradaman I, who .assumed the title Mahakshatrap. He ruled not only over Sind, but also over a good part of Gujarat, Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar. Although a foreigner settled in India, he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit-the Junagarh Rock Inscription; all the earlier inscriptions were composed in Prakrit. The inscription is a long panegyric recording his martial exploits and his reconstruction at Gimar (in Saurashtra) of the great artificial lake (Sudarshana Lake), which had been excavated under Chandragupta Maurya and improved in the time of Asoka. This inscription is among the earliest dated records of ancient India, and proves that Rudradaman was reigning in AD 150.
The Shakas of Taxiia The Taxila branch of the Shakas
ruled in north-western provinces of India with its capital at Taxila. The earliest Shaka ruler of this branch was Manes who is identified with King Moga. This branch ruled between 20 BC and AD 44.
The Shakas of Mathura Rajwul (Rajool) was the first ruler of this branch. The title of 'Mahakshatrapa' is inscribed on the coins of the Shakas. Rajwul was succeeded by his son Shoddas. This branch of the Shakas ruled the area between eastern Punjab and Mathura.
The Shakas of Maharashtra The Kshaharata clan of the Shakas ruled the entire Maharashtra region and a portion of Saurashtra. Bhumaka was the first Kshaharata ruler. But the most important ruler of this line of the Shakas was Nahapana. He is known for his silver and copper coins and for issuing several inscriptions in both Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts.
The Shakas of Saurashtra The Kardamaka dynasty of the Shakas ruled the Saurashtra region. The Kardamaka dynasty was founded by Chashtana, who was a feudatory of the Kushans. But Chashtana's grandson, Rudradaman, was the most important king of not only the Kardamaka dynasty but also the entire Shaka tribe. Rudradaman called himself mahakshatrapa. He conquered Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat, the northern Konkan and Mahishmati.
In about 58 BC we hear of a king of Ujjain who effectively fought against the Shakas and succeeded in driving them out in his time. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era called the Vikram Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the Shakas. Henceforth, Vikramaditya became a coveted title, and consequently there are 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history.
The Shaka governors were called satraps, but the title became so popular that even when the governors became independent rulers they did not part with it. The Nasik satrapy had the great ruler Nahapana. The most important of the Shaka satrapies was the one at Ujjain founded by Chastana. About ten kings of this dynasty ruled but the most important was Rudradaman I, who .assumed the title Mahakshatrap. He ruled not only over Sind, but also over a good part of Gujarat, Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar. Although a foreigner settled in India, he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit-the Junagarh Rock Inscription; all the earlier inscriptions were composed in Prakrit. The inscription is a long panegyric recording his martial exploits and his reconstruction at Gimar (in Saurashtra) of the great artificial lake (Sudarshana Lake), which had been excavated under Chandragupta Maurya and improved in the time of Asoka. This inscription is among the earliest dated records of ancient India, and proves that Rudradaman was reigning in AD 150.
SHAKAS
SHAKAS
The Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, however, did not long survive. Bactria itself was occupied by the Parthians early in the second half of the second century BC, and the Greeks were confined to their possessions in India and Afghanistan. Then fresh invaders appeared from the north. A complex chain of causes, climatic and political, led to new movements of the peoples of Central Asia. The consolidation of the Chinese Empire under the great emperor Shih Huang TI (247-210 BC), the building of the Great Wall of China, and perhaps also the drying up of the Central Asian pasture lands, had driven large bands of nomads westwards, from the confines of China to the region east of the Caspian. 5001 a nomadic people, called by the Chinese Yueh-chih, wel'l bearing heavily on the Scythian tribesmen on the border: of Bactria. The Scyths or the Shakas were driven by thl pressure from the north and east to attack Bactria, whid they occupied, soon to be followed by the Yueh-chih.
ThE Shakas moved on from Bactria to attack first the Parthiar rulers of Iran and then the Greeks in India. By the middlE of the first century BC only a few petty Greek chiefs stil ruled in India, and the power of the Shakas reached as fal as Mathura. The Shakas continued the earlier practice 01 issuing coins with inscriptions in Greek and Prakrit. ThE earliest of their kings known; to have ruled in India was Manes (circa 80 BC).
There were five branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. One branch of the Shakas settled in Afghanistan, the second in Punjab with Taxila as its capital, the third in Mathura, where it ruled for about two centuries, the fourth in western India which continued till the fourth century AD, and the fifth in the upper Deccan.
The Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, however, did not long survive. Bactria itself was occupied by the Parthians early in the second half of the second century BC, and the Greeks were confined to their possessions in India and Afghanistan. Then fresh invaders appeared from the north. A complex chain of causes, climatic and political, led to new movements of the peoples of Central Asia. The consolidation of the Chinese Empire under the great emperor Shih Huang TI (247-210 BC), the building of the Great Wall of China, and perhaps also the drying up of the Central Asian pasture lands, had driven large bands of nomads westwards, from the confines of China to the region east of the Caspian. 5001 a nomadic people, called by the Chinese Yueh-chih, wel'l bearing heavily on the Scythian tribesmen on the border: of Bactria. The Scyths or the Shakas were driven by thl pressure from the north and east to attack Bactria, whid they occupied, soon to be followed by the Yueh-chih.
ThE Shakas moved on from Bactria to attack first the Parthiar rulers of Iran and then the Greeks in India. By the middlE of the first century BC only a few petty Greek chiefs stil ruled in India, and the power of the Shakas reached as fal as Mathura. The Shakas continued the earlier practice 01 issuing coins with inscriptions in Greek and Prakrit. ThE earliest of their kings known; to have ruled in India was Manes (circa 80 BC).
There were five branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. One branch of the Shakas settled in Afghanistan, the second in Punjab with Taxila as its capital, the third in Mathura, where it ruled for about two centuries, the fourth in western India which continued till the fourth century AD, and the fifth in the upper Deccan.
FOREIGN INVASIONS AND THEIR IMPACT
FOREIGN INVASIONS AND THEIR IMPACT
In north-western India, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia, as the successors of Asoka were too weak to give a challenge to invasions.
THE INDO-GREEKS Small colonies of Asiatic Greeks had been settled in Bactria by the Achaemenids, and these were strengthened by settlements established by Alexander and Seleucus Nicator. About the middle of the third century Be, Bactria became independent of the Seleucid Empire. Around 200 BC a Bactrian king Euthydemus began to expand over the Hindukush, and gained a foothold on the North-Western Frontier, which had probably already broken away from the Mauryan Empire. Early in the second century Be, Demetrius, the son and successor of Euthydemus, pressed farther into India. He and his successors occupied m'ost of the 41dus valley and the Punjab, and led great raids far into the Ganga valley, at least one of which, perhaps led by kin~ Menander, reached Pataliputra. Soon the home domains 6f the Bactrian Greeks were wrested from them by the Eucratides, but descendants of Euthydemus continued to rule in Punjab and parts of the north-west, and came to be known as the Indo-Greeks. Then the Eucratides were also tempted to try their fortunes beyond the mountains and gained control of the Kabul valley and the district of Taxila. The Greek domains in India were divided into several petty kingdoms.
Little is known of the history of the Greeks in India, and their fortunes can only be faintly reconstructed from their remarkable coins, most of which bear legends in Greek on one side and in Prakrit on the other. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, and also the first to issue gold coins in India. The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India as the outcome of the Greek contact with non-Greek conquered peoples after Alexander's death. Gandhara art was its best example in India.
From now on, the Yavanas are mentioned from time to time in Indian literature. Through the Graeco-Bactrian kingdoms western theories of astrology and medicine began to enter India, and perhaps the development of the Sanskrit drama was in part inspired by this source. The Greeks introduced the use of curtain (yavanika in Sanskirt) in the Indian theatre. Many Indian texts speak of great Yavana raids.
One of the Greek kings of Punjab is specially remembered by Buddhism as the patron of the philosopher-monk Nagasena; this was Milinda or Menander, who ruled at Sakala (Sialkot), and whose long discussions with the sage are recorded in the Pali text, Milinda-Panho. Menander is said to have become a Buddhist.
The Besnagar column shows that the Greeks also sometimes supported the orthodox creeds. It was erected by the ambassador of Antialkidas, Heliodorus, at the court of Shunga ruler Bhagabhadra, in honour of the early Vaishnavite deity, Vasudeva. Thus some of the Greeks, while not completely merging with the local population, soon felt the influence of Indian ways of thought and made many compromises with Indian culture. Manu, writing probably a century or two later than Heliodorus, describes the Yavanas as degenerate kshatriyas, and gives them a place in Hindu society.
In north-western India, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia, as the successors of Asoka were too weak to give a challenge to invasions.
THE INDO-GREEKS Small colonies of Asiatic Greeks had been settled in Bactria by the Achaemenids, and these were strengthened by settlements established by Alexander and Seleucus Nicator. About the middle of the third century Be, Bactria became independent of the Seleucid Empire. Around 200 BC a Bactrian king Euthydemus began to expand over the Hindukush, and gained a foothold on the North-Western Frontier, which had probably already broken away from the Mauryan Empire. Early in the second century Be, Demetrius, the son and successor of Euthydemus, pressed farther into India. He and his successors occupied m'ost of the 41dus valley and the Punjab, and led great raids far into the Ganga valley, at least one of which, perhaps led by kin~ Menander, reached Pataliputra. Soon the home domains 6f the Bactrian Greeks were wrested from them by the Eucratides, but descendants of Euthydemus continued to rule in Punjab and parts of the north-west, and came to be known as the Indo-Greeks. Then the Eucratides were also tempted to try their fortunes beyond the mountains and gained control of the Kabul valley and the district of Taxila. The Greek domains in India were divided into several petty kingdoms.
Little is known of the history of the Greeks in India, and their fortunes can only be faintly reconstructed from their remarkable coins, most of which bear legends in Greek on one side and in Prakrit on the other. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, and also the first to issue gold coins in India. The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India as the outcome of the Greek contact with non-Greek conquered peoples after Alexander's death. Gandhara art was its best example in India.
From now on, the Yavanas are mentioned from time to time in Indian literature. Through the Graeco-Bactrian kingdoms western theories of astrology and medicine began to enter India, and perhaps the development of the Sanskrit drama was in part inspired by this source. The Greeks introduced the use of curtain (yavanika in Sanskirt) in the Indian theatre. Many Indian texts speak of great Yavana raids.
One of the Greek kings of Punjab is specially remembered by Buddhism as the patron of the philosopher-monk Nagasena; this was Milinda or Menander, who ruled at Sakala (Sialkot), and whose long discussions with the sage are recorded in the Pali text, Milinda-Panho. Menander is said to have become a Buddhist.
The Besnagar column shows that the Greeks also sometimes supported the orthodox creeds. It was erected by the ambassador of Antialkidas, Heliodorus, at the court of Shunga ruler Bhagabhadra, in honour of the early Vaishnavite deity, Vasudeva. Thus some of the Greeks, while not completely merging with the local population, soon felt the influence of Indian ways of thought and made many compromises with Indian culture. Manu, writing probably a century or two later than Heliodorus, describes the Yavanas as degenerate kshatriyas, and gives them a place in Hindu society.
Polity, Economy and Social Conditions
Polity, Economy and Social Conditions
Unlike the t, heavy government of the Mauryas, the Satavahana admi istration was simple. Monarchy was hereditary. Withe asserting their divine right, the Satavahanas were content with the simple title of rajan. Wielding unlimited power theory, the administration of the Satavahana kings, practice, was checked by custom and the Shastric injunction They began the practice of land grants to Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
The empire was divided into janapadas and aharas. Gama was the division below that of ahara. The taxes of the state were neither burdensome nor many. The sources of income were proceeds from the royal domain, the salt monopoly, taxes on land and income from court fees and fines. The Satavahanas acted as a link between north and south India, especially in trade and exchange of ideas.
The material culture in the Satavahana kingdom was a combination of local elements and northern ingredients. There is not much change in the form of iron hoes from the megalithic to the Satavahana phase;they were now fully and properly socketed. In Karimnagar district, a blacksmith's shop has been discovered. Gold may have been used as bullion; the Satavahanas did not issue gold coins. They issued coins of lead, besides potin, copper and bronze money.
The kingdom was famous for the production of rice and cotton. According to Pliny, the Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants. Through contacts with the north the people
of the Deccan learnt the use of coins,' burnt bricks, ring wells, etc. In Peddabankur (200 Be-AD 200) in Karimnagar district we find regular use of fire-baked bricks and use of flat, perforated roof tiles; besides, 22 brick wells have been discovered. Towns appeared in Maharashtra by the first century Be and they emerged in the eastern Deccan a century later. Increasing trade is indicated by numerous Roman and Satavahana coins.
Gautamiputra Satakarni claims to have re-established the four-fold varna system which had fallen into disorder. He boasts that he put an end to the intermixture between the people of different social orders. Such a confusion was obviously caused by the Shaka infiltration and the superficial brahmanisation of the tribes living in the Deccan. The absorption of the Shakas in Hindu society as kshatriyas was facilitated by intermarriage between the Shakas and the Satavahanas. Similarly the indigenous people were more and more acculturated by the Buddhist monks who were induced by land grants to settle in the western Deccan.
Traders also supported the Buddhist monks, for the earliest caves seem to have been located on the trade routes. In social hierarchy there were at least four classes. The mahabhojas, the maharathis and the mahasenapatis were the cream of the society. The officials like the amatyas, mahamatras, bhandagarikas, and non-officials comprised the second class. The third class consisted of vaidya, lakhaka, suvarnakara, etc. and the fourth class comprised the malakara, vardhaki, dasaka, etc.
It was customary for their king to be named after his mother e.g., Gautamiputra, Vashishthiputra, etc. It probably indicates that in the Satavahana society the mother enjoyed a good deal of importance. But basically the Satavahana ruling family was patriarchal because succession to the throne passed to the male member.
There were certain military and feudal traits in the administration. The senapati was appointed provincial governor. The administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of gaulmika, who was the head of a military regiment consisting of 9 chaQots, 9 elephants, 25 hQrses. and 45 foot-soldiers. The military character of the Satavahana rule is also evident from the common use of such terms as kataka and skandhavaras in their inscriptions. These were military camps and settlements which served as administrative centres so long as the king was there. Thus Satavahana administration seems to have been rather coercive.
The Satavahanas worshipped a large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva and others. Vedic sacrifices were performed, and brahmanas were paid sacrificial fees liberally. But the kings also promoted Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism commanded considerable following, especially among. the artisan class. Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important Buddhist centres under the Satavahanas and more so under their successors, the Ikshvakus. Similarly, Buddhism flourished in the Nasik and Junnar areas in the western Deccan, supported by the traders.
Many Buddhist chaityas and viharas were cut out of the solid rock in the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra, though the process had started about 200 Be. (The chaitya or sacred shrine was a large hall with a number of columns, and the vihara consisted of a central hall entered by a doorway from a verandah in front.) The most famous chaitya is that of Karle (1st century Be) in the western Deccan. The viharas were excavated near the chaityas for the residence of monks in the rainy season. Three viharas of first-second centuries AD at Nasik carry the inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra.
While rock-cut architecture is also to be found in Andhra, the region is more famous for independent Buddhist structures, mostly stupas. The Amaravati stupa began in about 200 Be but was completed in second century AD. The stupa is full of sculptures based on scenes from the life of the Buddha. Nagarjunakonda prospered most in the second-third centuries under the patronage of the Ikshvakus. It contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the earliest brahmanical brick temples. There are several viharas here. The richest architecture in the early centuries of the Christian era is represented here.
The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit. All inscriptionS were written in Prakrit and in the Brahmi script. One Prakrit text called Gathasaptasati is attributed to a Satavahana king Rala.
Unlike the t, heavy government of the Mauryas, the Satavahana admi istration was simple. Monarchy was hereditary. Withe asserting their divine right, the Satavahanas were content with the simple title of rajan. Wielding unlimited power theory, the administration of the Satavahana kings, practice, was checked by custom and the Shastric injunction They began the practice of land grants to Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
The empire was divided into janapadas and aharas. Gama was the division below that of ahara. The taxes of the state were neither burdensome nor many. The sources of income were proceeds from the royal domain, the salt monopoly, taxes on land and income from court fees and fines. The Satavahanas acted as a link between north and south India, especially in trade and exchange of ideas.
The material culture in the Satavahana kingdom was a combination of local elements and northern ingredients. There is not much change in the form of iron hoes from the megalithic to the Satavahana phase;they were now fully and properly socketed. In Karimnagar district, a blacksmith's shop has been discovered. Gold may have been used as bullion; the Satavahanas did not issue gold coins. They issued coins of lead, besides potin, copper and bronze money.
The kingdom was famous for the production of rice and cotton. According to Pliny, the Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants. Through contacts with the north the people
of the Deccan learnt the use of coins,' burnt bricks, ring wells, etc. In Peddabankur (200 Be-AD 200) in Karimnagar district we find regular use of fire-baked bricks and use of flat, perforated roof tiles; besides, 22 brick wells have been discovered. Towns appeared in Maharashtra by the first century Be and they emerged in the eastern Deccan a century later. Increasing trade is indicated by numerous Roman and Satavahana coins.
Gautamiputra Satakarni claims to have re-established the four-fold varna system which had fallen into disorder. He boasts that he put an end to the intermixture between the people of different social orders. Such a confusion was obviously caused by the Shaka infiltration and the superficial brahmanisation of the tribes living in the Deccan. The absorption of the Shakas in Hindu society as kshatriyas was facilitated by intermarriage between the Shakas and the Satavahanas. Similarly the indigenous people were more and more acculturated by the Buddhist monks who were induced by land grants to settle in the western Deccan.
Traders also supported the Buddhist monks, for the earliest caves seem to have been located on the trade routes. In social hierarchy there were at least four classes. The mahabhojas, the maharathis and the mahasenapatis were the cream of the society. The officials like the amatyas, mahamatras, bhandagarikas, and non-officials comprised the second class. The third class consisted of vaidya, lakhaka, suvarnakara, etc. and the fourth class comprised the malakara, vardhaki, dasaka, etc.
It was customary for their king to be named after his mother e.g., Gautamiputra, Vashishthiputra, etc. It probably indicates that in the Satavahana society the mother enjoyed a good deal of importance. But basically the Satavahana ruling family was patriarchal because succession to the throne passed to the male member.
There were certain military and feudal traits in the administration. The senapati was appointed provincial governor. The administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of gaulmika, who was the head of a military regiment consisting of 9 chaQots, 9 elephants, 25 hQrses. and 45 foot-soldiers. The military character of the Satavahana rule is also evident from the common use of such terms as kataka and skandhavaras in their inscriptions. These were military camps and settlements which served as administrative centres so long as the king was there. Thus Satavahana administration seems to have been rather coercive.
The Satavahanas worshipped a large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva and others. Vedic sacrifices were performed, and brahmanas were paid sacrificial fees liberally. But the kings also promoted Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism commanded considerable following, especially among. the artisan class. Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important Buddhist centres under the Satavahanas and more so under their successors, the Ikshvakus. Similarly, Buddhism flourished in the Nasik and Junnar areas in the western Deccan, supported by the traders.
Many Buddhist chaityas and viharas were cut out of the solid rock in the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra, though the process had started about 200 Be. (The chaitya or sacred shrine was a large hall with a number of columns, and the vihara consisted of a central hall entered by a doorway from a verandah in front.) The most famous chaitya is that of Karle (1st century Be) in the western Deccan. The viharas were excavated near the chaityas for the residence of monks in the rainy season. Three viharas of first-second centuries AD at Nasik carry the inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra.
While rock-cut architecture is also to be found in Andhra, the region is more famous for independent Buddhist structures, mostly stupas. The Amaravati stupa began in about 200 Be but was completed in second century AD. The stupa is full of sculptures based on scenes from the life of the Buddha. Nagarjunakonda prospered most in the second-third centuries under the patronage of the Ikshvakus. It contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the earliest brahmanical brick temples. There are several viharas here. The richest architecture in the early centuries of the Christian era is represented here.
The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit. All inscriptionS were written in Prakrit and in the Brahmi script. One Prakrit text called Gathasaptasati is attributed to a Satavahana king Rala.
THESATAVAHANAS
THESATAVAHANAS
The Satavahanas, also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, came into prominence in the Deccan after ending the rule of the Shungas and the Kanvas. Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty, Susharma, is said to have been killed by Pulamayi I about the middle of the first century BC.
Hala is considered another famous king of this dyn to be followed by Sri Satakarni, who ruled for 18 Y1 This Satakarni has been identified with the Satakarni OJ Nanaghat inscription (where he is called the lord of Deccan) and the husband of Queen Naganika. He formed two horse-sacrifices. The capital was at Pratis1 (Paithan) on the banks of Godavari in Maharashtra.
A period of darkness follows till the rise of Gautamip Satakarni, who saved the Deccan from the Shaka slaughts. He managed to salvage whatever damage done by the Shaka king Nahapana by defeating him keenly contested war (AD 124-125). He also overthrew Greeks and the Parthians. He thus succeeded in defea all the invading foreigners and took from them Kathia1 Malwa, Gujarat, Berar, etc.
Gautamiputra (AD 106-130) was succeeded by his Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (AD 130-154), who was probe the first Satavahana ruler to establish his authority in Andhra country. His influence extended to the Coromar Coast and to some portions of Madhya Pradesh. successor was Vashishthiputra Satakarni (AD 159-165) ~ was married to the daughter of the Shaka ruler RudradiU1 I (AD 130-150). But this did not prevent Rudradaman I h twice defeating the Satavahanas. Yajnasri Satakarni (AD 1 194), one of the later kings, recovered north Konkan . Malwa from the Shaka rulers. He was a lover of trade. navigation. His coins have been found not only in And but also in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. ] love for navigation and overseas trade is shown by representation of a ship on his coins.
After Yajnasri, the Satavahana kingdom began to , cline, and it was partitioned among five minor dynasti The northern provinces came under the sway of a collate branch of the Satavahanas. In the west the Abhiras est lished themselves round Nasik; the Ikshvakus carved ( for themselves a kingdom in the eastern region; the Chu1 controlled the far-flung areas of the south-western parts a extended their power on the north and east, and the Pallavas filled the political vaccum in the south-eastE tracts.
The Satavahanas, also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, came into prominence in the Deccan after ending the rule of the Shungas and the Kanvas. Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty, Susharma, is said to have been killed by Pulamayi I about the middle of the first century BC.
Hala is considered another famous king of this dyn to be followed by Sri Satakarni, who ruled for 18 Y1 This Satakarni has been identified with the Satakarni OJ Nanaghat inscription (where he is called the lord of Deccan) and the husband of Queen Naganika. He formed two horse-sacrifices. The capital was at Pratis1 (Paithan) on the banks of Godavari in Maharashtra.
A period of darkness follows till the rise of Gautamip Satakarni, who saved the Deccan from the Shaka slaughts. He managed to salvage whatever damage done by the Shaka king Nahapana by defeating him keenly contested war (AD 124-125). He also overthrew Greeks and the Parthians. He thus succeeded in defea all the invading foreigners and took from them Kathia1 Malwa, Gujarat, Berar, etc.
Gautamiputra (AD 106-130) was succeeded by his Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (AD 130-154), who was probe the first Satavahana ruler to establish his authority in Andhra country. His influence extended to the Coromar Coast and to some portions of Madhya Pradesh. successor was Vashishthiputra Satakarni (AD 159-165) ~ was married to the daughter of the Shaka ruler RudradiU1 I (AD 130-150). But this did not prevent Rudradaman I h twice defeating the Satavahanas. Yajnasri Satakarni (AD 1 194), one of the later kings, recovered north Konkan . Malwa from the Shaka rulers. He was a lover of trade. navigation. His coins have been found not only in And but also in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. ] love for navigation and overseas trade is shown by representation of a ship on his coins.
After Yajnasri, the Satavahana kingdom began to , cline, and it was partitioned among five minor dynasti The northern provinces came under the sway of a collate branch of the Satavahanas. In the west the Abhiras est lished themselves round Nasik; the Ikshvakus carved ( for themselves a kingdom in the eastern region; the Chu1 controlled the far-flung areas of the south-western parts a extended their power on the north and east, and the Pallavas filled the political vaccum in the south-eastE tracts.
THE KANVAS and THE CHETIS OF KALINGA
THE KANVAS
The last ruler of the Shunga dynasty, Devabhuti, was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva (also a brahmana), who founded the Kanva dynasty. This dynasty comprised four kings and ruled for 45 years. Its decline was due to the expansion of Satavahana power in the Deccan and the foreign invasions in the North.
THE CHETIS OF KALINGA
The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubaneshwar, Orissa) .
of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty, gives information about the Chetis. Kharavela is said to have defied the Satavahana ruler, Satakarni, and become free of the Magadhan empire. He pushed his southern conquests beyond the Godavari. Kharavela was a follower of Jainism, and patronised Jain monks for whom he constructed caves in the Udaigiri.
The last ruler of the Shunga dynasty, Devabhuti, was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva (also a brahmana), who founded the Kanva dynasty. This dynasty comprised four kings and ruled for 45 years. Its decline was due to the expansion of Satavahana power in the Deccan and the foreign invasions in the North.
THE CHETIS OF KALINGA
The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubaneshwar, Orissa) .
of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty, gives information about the Chetis. Kharavela is said to have defied the Satavahana ruler, Satakarni, and become free of the Magadhan empire. He pushed his southern conquests beyond the Godavari. Kharavela was a follower of Jainism, and patronised Jain monks for whom he constructed caves in the Udaigiri.
THE SHUNGAS
THE SHUNGAS
After killing Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king, in about 185-180 Be, his brahmana general, Pushyamitra Shunga, founded the Shunga dynasty. Panini connects the Shungas with the well-known brahmana family of the Bharadwajas. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Ashvalayana Shrautasutra, the Shungas are known as teachers.
Agnimitra, Pushyamitra's son and viceroy of Vidisa, was instrumental in suppressing the revolt of Vidarbha under Yajnasena. Greek invasions also troubled Pushyamitra's reign, but his grandson Vasumitra repulsed a major attack led by Demetrius.
Pushyamitra's dominions extended up to eastern Punjab and included Jalandhar and Sakala, Magadha in the east with Pataliputra as its capital and Kosala with Ayodhya as its capital, and central India with Vidisa as its capital.
Pushyamitra's was not a closely-knit centralised rule; it was more of a federal one. All through his rule he was referred to as senapati. After Agnimitra and Vasumitra, the Shunga dynasty had weak rulers, and it gradually declined.
Under the Shungas, brahmanical influence revived. The practice of Vedic sacrifices was popularised: Pushyamitra is said to have performed two Ashvamedha yajnas. Sanskrit literature flourished. Patanjali, the great grammarian who wrote the Mahabhashya, was born at Gonanda in central India in this period. Despite Buddhist persecution which seems to have taken place, the reign saw the Bharhut stupa being built, besides the fine railings of the Sanchi stupa. Incidentally, Kalidasa based the story of his play, Malavikagnimitra, on the life of Agnimitra of this dynasty.
After killing Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king, in about 185-180 Be, his brahmana general, Pushyamitra Shunga, founded the Shunga dynasty. Panini connects the Shungas with the well-known brahmana family of the Bharadwajas. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Ashvalayana Shrautasutra, the Shungas are known as teachers.
Agnimitra, Pushyamitra's son and viceroy of Vidisa, was instrumental in suppressing the revolt of Vidarbha under Yajnasena. Greek invasions also troubled Pushyamitra's reign, but his grandson Vasumitra repulsed a major attack led by Demetrius.
Pushyamitra's dominions extended up to eastern Punjab and included Jalandhar and Sakala, Magadha in the east with Pataliputra as its capital and Kosala with Ayodhya as its capital, and central India with Vidisa as its capital.
Pushyamitra's was not a closely-knit centralised rule; it was more of a federal one. All through his rule he was referred to as senapati. After Agnimitra and Vasumitra, the Shunga dynasty had weak rulers, and it gradually declined.
Under the Shungas, brahmanical influence revived. The practice of Vedic sacrifices was popularised: Pushyamitra is said to have performed two Ashvamedha yajnas. Sanskrit literature flourished. Patanjali, the great grammarian who wrote the Mahabhashya, was born at Gonanda in central India in this period. Despite Buddhist persecution which seems to have taken place, the reign saw the Bharhut stupa being built, besides the fine railings of the Sanchi stupa. Incidentally, Kalidasa based the story of his play, Malavikagnimitra, on the life of Agnimitra of this dynasty.
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